The Commercial Trade of Wild Reptiles and Amphibians
Introduction
The dramatic growth of human populations in the last century has placed immense pressure on that of animal populations leading to major ecological changes and significant habitat reduction. Increase in the demand for the collection of reptiles and amphibians from the wild for the pet trade, raw materials for clothing and food and traditional medicine is also a concern in terms of whether wild populations can sustain rising demand or if such demands threaten the survival of the target species. With reptiles and amphibians becoming increasingly popular as pets in some parts of the world, collection and trade in herpetofauna has increased significantly. The capture of animals in large numbers has occurred over a number of centuries but historically, those which were over collected for food or commercial purposes were either forced into extinction or into severe decline. The magnitude of global commercial trade is currently unknown as wildlife is largely taken without regard for a species ability to persist whilst exploited and very little monitoring of wildlife collection and trade is conducted leading to uncertainties in whether current levels of exploitation are actually sustainable.
The global trade in amphibians and reptiles is significant, national imports for amphibians annually run into millions of individuals collected from the wild, constituting a major source of income for those involved. The trade in a minority of species is prohibited or regulated by CITES and other local laws but such laws do not necessarily successfully protect the species.
On an ethical note, the numbers of animals collected annually is not the only concern but also how the animals are procured and transported as many animals die between the point of capture and time of import or export due to inadequacies in care. How well these animals’ needs can be met in captivity must also be considered along with the possibility for released or escaped animals to cause environmental damage in non-native habitats and zoonotic risk to humans and other animals.
Description of the Issue with Commercial Trade of Wild Herpetofauna
- Population Declines Through Over Exploitation
Populations of amphibians and reptiles have seriously reduced globally as human populations have increased causing wild habitats to shrink. There are a variety of reasons as to why species populations decline, one of which is due to the impact of commercial trade in wild animals. Efforts to collect wild animals may be so intense with some species as to cause declines. Some species aggregate in small areas during breeding or hibernation making them particularly vulnerable to intense collection.
The global amphibian assessment commissioned by IUCN in 2004 revealed that collection of such animals for commercial trade represents a threat for 281 amphibian species with the population status of 153 (54%) species classed as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered, indicating a potentially serious threat caused by the commercial trade. Unfortunately, declines in species populations are not always easily identified so there lies the possibility of declines going undetected. Current monitoring methods are limited with various issues such as incorrect labelling of species for importation/exportation leading to the potential to deplete species populations before declines are observed.
- Habitat Destruction through Damaging Collection Methods
Increased rates of collection has led directly to accelerate habitat loss due to the destructive methods of collection used causing permanent damage to essential microclimates such as cracks and crevices in rock outcrops. These microclimates may provide necessary cooling from the heat during the summer months and protection from the cold in winter. Destruction of habitats may not just harm target species but also non-target species which depend on the same microclimates for survival leading to a decline in biodiversity.
- Risk to Humans and Non-Indigenous Ecosystems
The appeal of reptiles as pets has grown considerably within the last three decades. With growth in the reptile trade there is also an increase in zoonoses and a threat to public health. The number of human cases of salmonellosis has increased dramatically in parallel with reptile pet ownership.
The trade in amphibians has also implicated in the emergence of chytridiomycosis. There is evidence to indicate that the pet trade is facilitating the spread of chytridiomycosis by spreading infected animals worldwide. Wildlife can also be a source for the re-emergence of previously controlled zoonoses. The introduction of non-native species may not just risk the spread of zoonotic diseases but may also disrupt indigenous reptile communities through increased competition or predation of native species. For instance, the Brown Snake (Boiga irregularis) is an invasive species to Guam and has become a serious pest. The snakes have virtually wiped out the native forests birds, with twelve species extinct, most of which were endemic, and several other species surviving in dwindling populations. Furthermore, of the twelve species of lizard which inhabit the island, nine are expected to become extinct because of over-predation by the introduced Brown Snakes.
- Ethical Considerations Concerning Commercial Trade
There are not only concerns for the survivorship of species within the commercial trade but also for the welfare of the individuals involved. Some methods of wild capture can inflict considerable harm and animals are often transported long distances in overcrowded and unhygienic conditions. There is also the issue that some species are more suitable for the pet trade as evidenced by the numbers given up to shelters or euthanised, as it becomes apparent that they are too difficult to care for.
Discussion of Issue and Impact on Stakeholders
There are a number of stakeholders involved in the commercial trade of herpetofauna, key stakeholders which shall be highlighted include animal collectors (often local people), governments and regulatory organisations, conservationists, traders (such as pet shops), veterinarians and potential reptile owners.
Trade in exotics has become an increasingly important part of the wildlife trade business and also has the potential to generate funding for indigenous peoples which may be particularly important for those in developing regions of the world. The human use of animal’s is an essential part of many cultures but harvesting must also be biologically sustainable. Determining suitable rates of collection is complex and depends on many factors such as abundance, behaviour, life history characteristics of species and a host of socioeconomic factors. Some species are more severely affected by collection than others, such as those with low reproductive frequencies.
To try and maintain sustainability certain organisations such as CITES grants rarer species protection by prohibiting trade in such animals. However, there is a perception that rareness increases the value of an animal, this perception can cause problems for conservationists. Granted protection is sometimes perceived as proof of value to collectors and even though trade of many rare species is illegal, smugglers face low penalties if caught, therefore continue to deplete endangered populations for large amounts of money, paradoxically causing the opposite intended effects. Commercially important species such as Tegus, Iguanas and Crocodiles are harvested according to guidelines based on social and biological parameters. This indicates that those commonly traded are not necessarily those most at risk of over collection. As declines are difficult to detect there is a need for long term studies of natural populations and communities, this is necessary for understanding normal population trends and fluctuations.
In the US the LEMIS database is used for estimating volumes of commercially traded animals and plants. However, this database only logs a small fraction of the global number of animals collected from wild. Furthermore, many shipments are not recorded at species level leaving the possibility for inaccuracies in what little information that is obtained about animal commercial trade.
There is often an assumption that harvest method has little impact on population numbers other than influencing surplus levels, this form of thinking can lead to habitat destruction which is a concern to wildlife managers as methods implemented for collection can exert lasting effects not only at an individual level but at population and community level as well. With increased rates of collection to fuel demand, the potential of depleting wild populations may also be a concern for the people who depend on the animals for trade and food, it is therefore in the interest of all those involved in the trade to maintain sustainable harvest.
Various policies are in place to control the risk of introducing disease from animals to non-native habitats but the recognition of amphibian pathogens are limited. DEFRA indicates that there is no animal health import requirements for pet amphibians other than a letter from a veterinarian stating the animals are healthy enough to be transported, a particular problem if the veterinarian fails to detect specific pathogens which may cause risk to people or local wildlife.
Conclusion
It is clear that the collection of reptiles and amphibians for the growing international trade has led to accelerated habitat loss and species declines. However there is currently no comprehensive evaluation to link collection with species decline. The trade is largely unregulated with no conclusive data on global unsustainable harvests so the removal of animals occurs in void of knowledge with respect to species ability to tolerate current levels of take. As there is a lack of accurate data concerning sustainable trade it is difficult to establish whether current take levels are appropriate. Some species may not even be adequately protected against over collection despite their legal status. The perception that rare species possess the greatest value may further contribute to declines and extinctions.
Millions of rural and indigenous people in developing regions of the world depend on wildlife for income and food so although conservation biologists are interested in preserving high levels of biodiversity and natural ecosystems, there must be recognition that wildlife is used by the people. Acceptable harvest methods should have little impact on populations other than eliminating or reducing number of surplus individuals. In order to achieve this, long term monitoring is necessary to identify those species at greatest risk. Depleted populations can be catastrophic for animals and people which depend on them.
There is also further risks with bringing wild animals into the pet trade including risk of exotic pests or parasites, the spread of disease to native animals and degradation of local ecosystems as a result of intentional or accidental release of non-indigenous species. Although steps are taken for the quarantining of herpetofauna to prevent the spread of zoonotic diseases and introduction of parasites, the effectiveness of these measures is dependent on the veterinarians ability to detect such potentially harmful pathogens as well as the traders and owners knowledge of the existence of these potential issues.
Recommendations
Communication can be successfully established between major stakeholders, namely the government, animal importers, traders and breeders, zoological gardens, scientists and research organisations. Initiating communication between these bodies of people is increasingly necessary in order to take measures for control of unsustainable trade and infectious diseases. Immediate control of unsustainable collection may be achieved through legislation and cultural shifts in environmental attitude. Such shifts in cultural attitudes may be achieved through education of sustainable collection methods and value of maintaining habitats to support and maintain further trade in the future. Legislation to enforce non-destructive methods of harvest may also be imposed.
Due to the lack of knowledge surrounding sustainable collection it is recommended that the setup of a global database or monitoring programmes for the trade in non CITES species be implemented allowing for improved estimates of how many animals can be harvested sustainably from the wild. All countries involved in trade need to assess the ecology and demography of populations in the wild including the impact of removal. Focus must be placed on the most vulnerable species and commercial collection to only be considered after enough data is gathered to determine if harvests will threaten long term survival of the species.
Enforcement to protect against the spread of zoonotic diseases does not currently exist in most countries, therefore it is advised that legislation for each country, addressing the threat posed by wildlife pathogens be developed. Assessment framework for animal traders, and potential owners may also be created so informed decisions can be made by animal traders and potential pet owners on the most suitable animal as a pet. This has the potential to influence demand and prevent some species being placed in unsustainable circumstances. Those with a history of injury or death through procurement may be refused by informed decision makers thereby potentially reducing unethical capture of animals in the future.
References
Chomel, B., Belotto, A., and Meslin, F., (2007). Wildlife, Exotic Pets, and Emerging Zoonosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13(1), 6-11
Courchamp, F., Angulo, E., Rivalan, P., Hall, R., Signoret, L., Bull, L., and Meinard, Y, (2006). Rarity Value and Species Extinction: The Anthropogenic Allee Effect. PLoS Biology, 4(12), 2405-2410
Daszak, P., Berger, L., Cunningham, A., Hyatt, A., Green, D., and Speare, R., (1999). Emerging Infectious Diseases and Amphibian Population Declines. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 5(6), 735-748
Fisher, M., and Garner, T., (2007). The Relationship Between the Emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the International Trade in Amphibians and Introduced Amphibian Species. Fungal Biology Reviews, 21, 2-9
Fitzgerald, L., (1994). Tupinambis Lizards and People: A Sustainable Use Approach to Conservation and Development. Conservation Biology, 8(1), 12-16
Gibbons, J., Scott, D., Ryan, T., Buhlmann, K., Tuberville, T., Metts, B., Greene, J., Mills, T., Leiden, Y., Poppy, S., and Winne, C., (2000). The Global Decline of Reptiles, Déjà Vu Amphibians. BioScience, 50(8), 653-666
Goode, M., Horrace, W., Sredl, M., and Howland, J., (2005). Habitat Destruction by Collectors Associated With Decreased Abundance of Rock-Dwelling Lizards. Biological Conservation, 125, 47-54
Goode, M., Swann, D., and Schwalbe, C., (2004). Effects of Destructive Collecting Practices on Reptiles: A Field Experiment. Journal of Wildlife Management, 68(2) 429-434
Schlaepfer, M., Hoover, G., and Dodd, K., (2005). Challenges in Evaluating the Impact of the Trade in Amphibians and Reptiles on Wild Populations. BioScience, 55(3), 256-264
Schuppli, C., and Fraser, D., (2000). A Framework for Assessing the Suitability of Different Species as Companion Animals. Animal Welfare, 9, 359-372
Image sourced from dailymail.co.uk
© 2014 Cat Read
Chomel, B., Belotto, A., and Meslin, F., (2007). Wildlife, Exotic Pets, and Emerging Zoonosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13(1), 6-11
Courchamp, F., Angulo, E., Rivalan, P., Hall, R., Signoret, L., Bull, L., and Meinard, Y, (2006). Rarity Value and Species Extinction: The Anthropogenic Allee Effect. PLoS Biology, 4(12), 2405-2410
Daszak, P., Berger, L., Cunningham, A., Hyatt, A., Green, D., and Speare, R., (1999). Emerging Infectious Diseases and Amphibian Population Declines. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 5(6), 735-748
Fisher, M., and Garner, T., (2007). The Relationship Between the Emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the International Trade in Amphibians and Introduced Amphibian Species. Fungal Biology Reviews, 21, 2-9
Fitzgerald, L., (1994). Tupinambis Lizards and People: A Sustainable Use Approach to Conservation and Development. Conservation Biology, 8(1), 12-16
Gibbons, J., Scott, D., Ryan, T., Buhlmann, K., Tuberville, T., Metts, B., Greene, J., Mills, T., Leiden, Y., Poppy, S., and Winne, C., (2000). The Global Decline of Reptiles, Déjà Vu Amphibians. BioScience, 50(8), 653-666
Goode, M., Horrace, W., Sredl, M., and Howland, J., (2005). Habitat Destruction by Collectors Associated With Decreased Abundance of Rock-Dwelling Lizards. Biological Conservation, 125, 47-54
Goode, M., Swann, D., and Schwalbe, C., (2004). Effects of Destructive Collecting Practices on Reptiles: A Field Experiment. Journal of Wildlife Management, 68(2) 429-434
Schlaepfer, M., Hoover, G., and Dodd, K., (2005). Challenges in Evaluating the Impact of the Trade in Amphibians and Reptiles on Wild Populations. BioScience, 55(3), 256-264
Schuppli, C., and Fraser, D., (2000). A Framework for Assessing the Suitability of Different Species as Companion Animals. Animal Welfare, 9, 359-372
Image sourced from dailymail.co.uk
© 2014 Cat Read